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Factors of production



Introduction

Factorsofproductionrefertoalltheelementsandenvironmentalconditionsnecessaryformaterialproduction.Generallyspeaking,factorsofproductionincludeatleasthumanfactors,materialfactorsandtheircombinedfactors.Thereasonwhyworkersandmeansofproductionarethemostbasicelementsofmaterialproductionisbecausetheyarealwaysindispensableforproductionregardlessofthesocialformofproduction.Themissingelements,theformerarethephysicalconditionsofproduction,andthelatterarethematerialconditionsofproduction.However,whenworkersandmeansofproductionareseparated,theyareonlyfactorsofproductionintermsofpossibility.Theymustbecombinediftheyaretobecomeactualproductionfactors.

Thecombinationoflaborandmeansofproductionisanecessaryconditionforhumanbeingstocarryoutsociallaborproduction.Withouttheircombination,therewouldbenosocialproductivelabor.Intheproductionprocess,laborersuselabormaterialstowork,sothattheobjectsoflaborundergoexpectedchanges.Attheendoftheproductionprocess,laborandlaborobjectsarecombined,laborismaterialized,objectsareprocessed,andproductssuitableforpeople'sneedsareformed.Ifthewholeprocessisexaminedfromtheperspectiveofresults,themeansoflaborandtheobjectsoflaborappearasmeansofproduction,andlaboritselfappearsasproductivelabor.

Duetothedifferencesinproductionconditionsandtheircombinationmethods,thesocietyisdividedintodifferenteconomicstructuresandstagesofdevelopment.Inthehistoricalprocessofsocialandeconomicdevelopment,theconnotationofproductionfactorshasbecomeincreasinglyabundant,andnewproductionfactorssuchasmodernscience,technology,management,information,resources,etc.,haveenteredtheproductionprocessandplayedtheirrespectivemajorrolesinmodernlarge-scaleproduction..Thestructureoffactorsofproductionwillalsochange,andthemoredevelopedtheproductivity,thegreatertheeffectofthesefactors.

Productionfactorsincludefourcategories:labor,capital,land,andentrepreneurialtalents.Foralongtime,weonlyemphasizedtheroleoflaborinvaluecreationandwealthproduction,whiletheroleofotherfactorsofproductionandtheireffectsoncitizensThedivisionofincomehaseitherbeenneglectedornotpaidenoughattentionto,sotheproblemoflabor'sparticipationinincomedistributionhasbeenemphasized.Distributionaccordingtoproductionfactorsmeansthatwhilecontinuingtohighlighttheroleoflabor,sufficientattentionshouldbepaidtocapital,technology,andmanagementandotherfactorsofproduction,sothattheycanalsobereasonablyandlegallyrewarded.Amongthem,theroleandreturnoftwoelementsmustbeemphasized:

Oneishumancapital.Capitalincludestwoformsofphysicalcapitalandhumancapital.Theeconomicdevelopmentpracticeofvariouscountriesshowsthattheroleofhumancapitalisincreasing,thecontributionofeducationtothegrowthrateofnationalincomeisrisingsharply,andthequality,knowledge,andtalentsofpeoplearebecomingmoreandmoredecisiveforeconomicdevelopment.Therefore,howtogetsufficientreturnsonhumancapitalbecomesveryimportantforthesustainabledevelopmentoftheeconomyandthedistributionofnationalincome.

Thesecondislandandresourceproperties.Theirroleinwealthproductionhaslongbeenrecognizedbypeople,buttherehasalwaysbeenavagueunderstandingoftheirneedtoparticipateinincomedistribution.Thisisreflectedinthefactthatmycountry'slandandnaturalresourcesareusedforfreeoratlowpricesinmanycases.Inourcountry,landandnaturalresourcesareownedbythestateorcollectives.Theirfreeorlow-costusemeansthattheirprofitshavebeeninvadedbyafewpeople.Thisisalsoanimportantreasonfortherapidexpansionoftheincomegapinourcountry.Therefore,howtoparticipateinthedistributionoflandandresourceelementsisaproblemthatshouldbeseriouslyconsideredwhenimprovingtheincomedistributionsystem.

Distributionrelations

Tostudytheimpactofthedistributionofproductionfactorsonincomedistribution,weshouldfollowtheeconomist’sprinciple:"Anydistributionofconsumptionmaterialsisnothingbutproductionconditions.Theresultofitsowndistribution."

TakingChina’surban-ruralincomedistributionasanexample,theurban-ruralincomegapisdirectlyrelatedtothedistributionofproductionfactors.

China’surban-ruralstructure,fromaregionalperspective,theurbanpopulationissmallerthantheruralpopulation,butitcontrolstheresourcesofownershipbythewholepeople;theruralpopulationismorethanthecity,andonlypartofthelandownershipiscontrolled(duetolandsales,mostTheincomeistakenawaybythecity)asmallamountofresources.Thisdistributionpatternofproductionfactorswillinevitablyleadtotheexpansionoftheurban-ruralincomegap.First,therearemanyproductionfactorscontrolledbythecityandthequalityisgood.Therearemanyopportunitiesforresidentstocombinetheproductionfactors.Thequantityandqualityoftheproductionfactorsoccupiedandusedwillbelarge,andtheirincomewillnaturallybehigh.Secondly,urbanresidentsenjoyurbanization.Thebenefitsbroughtbythemenjoythepublicproductsprovidedbythestate,butfarmerspayahugeprice,buttheyarenotrewarded,andtheycannotenjoythesametreatmentasurbanresidents.Thiswillinevitablywidenthegapbetweenurbanandrurallivingstandards;finally,Thebiggestgapbetweenurbanandruralareasisthedifferenceinthelevelofknowledge.Therelativelypoorculturalknowledgeoffarmersisafatalinjurytofarmers.Itdeprivesfarmersofopportunitiesforemploymentandhighincome.Thelackofproductionfactorsinruralareaswillmakefarmerslosetheirrighttodevelopment,andtheywillnotbeabletomakeafortuneandincreasetheirincome.Thisisthefundamentalreasonforthewideningurban-ruralincomegap.Theformationofthisproblemcanneitherbeblamedonthepriorityofefficiency,norcanitbesolvedbyfairdistribution.Itcanonlystartwiththedistributionofproductionfactors.Intheuseofproductionfactors,farmersshouldreceivethesametreatmentasurbanresidentsinordertobenefitsocialjustice.

Thepossessionanddistributionofproductionfactorsarenotarbitrary,butultimatelydeterminedbythelevelofproductivity.Thefairappropriationofproductionfactorsisnotredistribution,butbreakstheartificialdivision,sothatallmembersofsocietyareequalintheuseofsocialproductionfactors.Inamarketeconomy,everyoneisonthesamestartinglineandallhaveequalityintheuseofsocialproductionfactors.right.Butthiskindoffairopportunityisonlyaprerequisite,andfairnessinoperatingrulesisalsorequired,thatis,everyoneisusingthesamerules.Thisrulemainlyreferstothegovernment'spolicyformulationandimplementation.

Ifthepolicyistobetreateddifferently,itcannotbetreatedequally,itwillinevitablyaffecttheincomeofsomepeople.Forexample,thereisascissorsdifferenceindeterminingthepriceofindustrialandagriculturalproducts.Thereisahugepricedifferencebetweentheprimarymarketandthesecondarymarketintheexpropriationoffarmers’land.Thewagesandbenefitspaidtomigrantworkersarelowerthanthatofequivalenturbanworkers.TheyareenjoyingpublicproductssuchasIntermsofeducation,health,subsidies,relief,socialsecurity,etc.,therearemajordifferencesbetweenruralandurbanareas,aswellasthedifficultiesandunfairtreatmentoffarmersinurbanemployment,thegovernment’spreferenceforurbanfiscaltransferpayments,etc.,allofwhichwillaffectFarmers’income.Intermsofpolicyimplementation,ifthesupervisionisnotstrict,andthereareevensiblings,suchastaxevasion,itwillalsomakesomepeoplerich.Regardingthehandlingofthistypeofproblem,evenifthe"efficiencypriority,takingintoaccountfairness"ischangedto"fairnessfirst,takingintoaccountefficiency",itcannotberesolved,andthesamerulesmustbeimplementedinpolicy.

Undertheconditionsofamarketeconomy,theprincipleofdistributionisbasedonfactorsofproduction,sothedistributionoffactorsofproductiondeterminesincomedistribution.Aseconomistshavepointedout:"Sincethefactorsofproductionaredistributedinthisway,thecurrentdistributionofconsumptionmaterialswillnaturallyarise."Therefore,tosolvetheproblemofincomedistributiongaps,wecannotusefairdistribution,butcanonlychangeit.Thedistributionoffactorsofproductionistreatedequallyinpolicy,sothateveryonestandsonthesamestartingline,sharesthesamerules,andeveryonehasequalopportunitiesandfaircompetition.

Elementcontribution

Introduction

People'sunderstandingofthingsisalwayschanging,andtheoveralltrendistomoveforwardandtoahigherlevel.Thepastviewheldthatsocialismshoulddistributeaccordingtoworkandcommunismshoulddistributeaccordingtoneeds.Distributionaccordingtoworkmeansdistributionaccordingtolaborcontributions,anddistributionaccordingtoneedsmeansdistributionaccordingtoneeds.Distributionaccordingtowork,wherethereiswork,thereisdistribution;accordingtoneed,thereisdistributionwhenthereisneed.

Subsequentpracticehasprovedthatsimplyimplementingdistributionaccordingtoworkwillnotwork.Communismcannotbeachieved,anddistributionondemandcannotbeachieved.Sothereisasayingthatonthebasisofdistributionaccordingtowork,distributioniscarriedoutaccordingtothecontributionsofvariousfactorsofproduction,whichisasupplementtodistributionaccordingtowork.Theelementcontributioncomesfromthis.

Todiscussthecontributionoffactors,twoissuesneedtobeclarified.Oneiswhichfactorsarecountedasfactorsofproduction,andtheotherishowtocountthecontributionsofthesefactorsofproduction.

Type

Thecommonproductionfactorsarelabor,capital,andland.Laborcanalsobesubdividedintoworkinghours,knowledgeandwisdom.Forexample,intellectualpropertyandmanagementknowledgecanberegardedasknowledgeandwisdom.Capitalcanalsobesubdividedintocapitalcapital,equipmentcapital,andnetworkcapital.

LaborContribution

Labor’scontributionisusuallymeasuredandreflectedintermsofwages.Intellectualpropertyrights,managementknowledge,etc.areoftenregardedasextensionsofcapital,basedontheproportionofequity,dividends,andvoting.Tobereflected,atthistime,theroleofintellectualpropertyrightsandmanagementknowledgecanbecomparedwithcapitalcapital,equipmentcapital,networkcapital,mainfactorybuilding,land,etc.

Someelementscancreatevalueinthemselves,andsomeelementsarevalueinthemselves.Theparticipationofvariousproductionfactorsinthedistributionaccordingtotheircontributionisbasedontwoconsiderations.Oneistheeconomicembodimentoftheownershiprelationshipofthefactors.Whoeverholdsthefactorsandwhoistheownerofthefactorscanparticipateinthedistribution;thesecondistheinherentrequirementofthemarketeconomytoallocateresources.,Themarketeconomyrequirestheoptimalallocationofresources,andtheallocationoffactorcontributionsisconducivetoguidingtheallocationofresourcestothebestareas.

Allocatinglaborelementscanguidelaborerstoworkmoreandearnmoreingoodareas.Whenplantingsweetpotatoesandcucumbersismoreprofitablethanplantingriceandwheat,andwhenthewagesarehigher,excellentlaborersandlaborerswhowanthigherwageswillnaturallyflowintothefieldofsweetpotatoandcucumberplanting.WhenwagesintheNorthwestandCentralPlainsarehigherandlivingconsumptionlevelsarelower,outstandinglaborersfromthesoutheastcoastwillalsomigratetotheNorthwestandCentralPlains.

Whentheincomefromrealestatespeculationishigherthantheincomefromstockspeculation,thefundsfromthespeculationwillflowtotherealestatemarket,therebypushinguphousingprices.Whenthestockmarketandtherealestatemarketcannotpursueprofits,thefundsforstocksandrealestatespeculationwillnaturallyflowtotherealeconomyandtothecommoditymarket,pushingupprices,industrialproducts,andfuturesprices.

Servingpeoplewithteaandwaterisoriginallyanordinaryhousework,andmostpeopleareunwillingtodoit.Oncethesejobsaremovedtotheplane,theywillchargehighairfaresandpayhighsalariestotheflightattendants.Everyoneservingteaandwaterisrushingtodoit.Astheincome,situation,andremunerationofflightattendantsandpositionsinotherindustriesgraduallybecomeequal,theflightattendantswillalsobecomeemptyparentsandmothers.Itcanbepredictedthatinthenearfuture,theflightattendantswillnolongerbehandsomemenandwomen,butwillbeunclesandaunts.

Resourceallocation

Productionfactorsparticipateinthedistributionaccordingtotheircontribution,"Itisbasedonthevaluecreatedbysociallynecessarylabor,accordingtothecontributionofvariousproductionfactorsinvalueformation.Distribution.""Becauselabor,capital,landandotherfactorsofproductionallplaytheirrespectiverolesinvalueformation,socialistwages,interest,andlandrent(therearetworepresentativeviews:oneviewisthat,Factorsofproductionparticipateinthedistributionaccordingtotheircontribution,"thatis,onthebasisofthevaluecreatedbysociallynecessarylabor,andaccordingtothecontributionofvariousproductionfactorsinvalueformation."Becauselabor,capital,landandotherproductionfactorsareinvalueformationTheyallplaytheirrespectiveroles.Therefore,socialistwages,interestandlandrentarenothingmorethanrewardstotheownersofthesefactorsofproductionbasedonthecontributionsoflabor,capital,landandotherfactorsofproduction."[i]AnotherpointofviewItisbelievedthattheparticipationofproductionfactorsindistributionaccordingtotheircontributionreferstothedistributionaccordingtothecontributionofproductionfactorsintheproductionofwealth,thatis,theusevalue,ratherthantheircontributioninthecreationofvalue.

ThefocusofthedivergenceofthetwoviewsItiswhetherthefactorsofproductioncontributetotheformationofwealthortheformationofvalue.Therefore,thefactorsofproductionaredistributedaccordingtotheircontributionintheformationofwealthoraccordingtotheircontributionintheformationofvalue.)Itisnecessarytograsplabor,capital,andtechnology.Themeaningofproductionfactorssuchasmanagementandmanagementparticipatinginthedistributionaccordingtotheircontribution.Factorsofproductionincludetwoaspects:subjectandobject.Humanlaboristhemainbodyoftheproductionfactors,andtheprocessingobjectsrequiredforproduction,suchasfarmingrequiresland,textilesrequirecottonandcottonyarn,andthetoolsandmeansrequiredforprocessing,belongtotheobjectaspect.Asfaraslaborisalsoafactorofproduction,infact,distributionaccordingtoworkshouldalsobeincludedinthecategoryofdistributionaccordingtofactors.

ButinthesocialistsocietyenvisionedbyMarx,themeansofproductionarepubliclyowned.Theobjectiveelementsrequiredforproductionandreproductionaredeductedinadvancebythesociety,andonlytheremainingpersonalconsumergoodsarepaidbythesociety.Individuallaborcontributionsaredistributed.Underthetraditionalsocialistplannedeconomicsystem,themeansofproductionarepubliclyowned,socialproductionresourcesareuniformlyallocatedbythestate,andthemeansofconsumptionareallocatedaccordingtoworkamongtheworkers.Relationtoreality:Thereportofthe16thNationalCongressoftheCommunistPartyofChinaclearlystatedthat"theprincipleofestablishinglabor,capital,technologyandmanagementandotherproductionfactorstoparticipateinthedistributionaccordingtotheircontributions".

Basisofdistribution

Firstofall,twoissuesmustbedistinguished:oneisthatvaluecreationcannotbeconfusedwithvaluedistribution;theotheristhatthebasisofdistributionaccordingtoproductionfactorsisnotthefactorvaluetheory.DistributionaccordingtofactorsofproductioncannotfindabasisinMarx'slabortheoryofvalue,anditseemsthatbasiscanbefoundinthe"TrinityFormula"ofWesterneconomics.However,thedistributionisdeterminedaccordingtothecontributionoffactorsofproduction,andtheamountofcontributionoffactorsofproductioncannotbedetermined.Accordingtothelawofdiminishingproductivity,Clarkusesmarginalproductreturnstomeasurethereturnsofproductionfactors.Thereareaseriesofunsolvableproblems,whicharescientific.Thebasisfordistributionaccordingtofactorsofproductioncanonlybetheeconomicrealizationoftheownershipoftheownersofthefactorsofproduction.

Theefficiencyandfairnessproblemscausedbythefinaldistributionneedtoberesolvedbythepeopleandpoliticalleaders.Isitbettertobefair,ortobemoreefficient,ortochangeitregularlyorirregularlytomaintaindynamicbalance,whichisfullofwisdom.

PeoplewholivedintheearlyMaoeradidnotcomplainaboutinjusticeandpoverty.Today'speopledonotcomplainaboutwealthorinjustice.Inthepast,everyonewalkedtogetherandrodeabicycletogether.Now,somepeoplefly,somerideMercedes,somedriveBMWs,someridemotorcycles,somewalk,andsomecrowdsubwaysandbuses..

Marketconcept

Themarketeconomyrequiresthecommodificationofproductionfactors,andtheflowandallocationofproductionfactorsarerealizedintheformofcommoditiesinthemarketthroughmarkettransactions,therebyformingavarietyofproductionfactormarkets.

Whenfactorsofproductionenterthemarkettoallocateresources,thepricesofcapitalfactors,landfactors,andlaborfactorswillnaturallybeformed.Theformationandchangeofpricesofproductionfactorssuchasland,labor,andcapitalhaveadualnature.

Ontheonehand,sincethefactorsofproductionhavebeencommercialized,theirpriceformationandchangeshavethenatureandregulationofgeneralcommodities,andtheirpriceformationandchangeprocessesareincommonwiththepriceformationandchangeprocessesofordinarycommodities.Ontheotherhand,althoughthefactorsofproductionarecommodities,theyarespecialcommoditiesafterall,andtheirpriceformationandchangesmusthavetheirowncharacteristics.

Landmarket

Theconnotationofland

Asacategoryofproductionfactors,landisageneraltermforvariousnaturalresourcesthathavenotbeentransformedbyhumanlabor.Thearablelandandconstructionlandalsoincludeforest,mineraldeposits,watersurface,sky,etc.Landisaneconomicresourcethatanyeconomicactivitymustrelyonanduse.Comparedwithothereconomicresources,itsnaturalcharacteristicsaremainlyitsimmobilityandpersistence,aswellasthedifferenceinabundanceandlocation.Comparedwithothereconomicresourcesandproductionfactors,landisthemostdifficulttoincrease,anditsscarcityismoresignificantthanotherproductionfactors.Especiallywiththeincreaseofthepopulation,theexpansionofthescaleofeconomicactivitiesandthein-depthdevelopment,thescarcityoflandhasanobjectivetrendofobviousstrengthening.

Howtoprotectandmakegooduseofexistinglandresourcesanddevelopnewlandresourcesisalwaysanimportantissueineconomicactivities.Formycountry,whichhasalargepopulationandaseriousshortageofavailablelandresourcespercapita,theprotection,utilizationanddevelopmentoflandresourcesaremoreimportant.Commercializationandmarketallocationoflandresourcesareimportantwaystoimprovetheefficiencyoflandresourceallocationandutilization.

Thecompositionofthelandmarket

Inaprivatemarketeconomy,landisaprivateproductionfactor.Thelandmarketactuallyhastwolevels:oneisthelandtransactionmarket,andthefinalOwnershipisthetransactionobject,andthelandpriceisformedaccordingly;thesecondisthelandleasemarket,wheretherighttouselandisthetransactionobject,andthelandrentisformedaccordingly.Inourcountry,twosystemsofstateownershipandcollectiveownershipareimplementedforland.Urbanlandandnon-agriculturallandareunderstateownership,andagriculturallandisundercollectiveownership.Basedonthis,twoseparatelandmarketswereformedinthereform,namely,theurbanlandmarketandtherurallandmarket.

Urbanlandmarket

Theurbanlandmarketincludestwo-tiermarketsincludingthelanduserighttransfermarket(primarymarket)andthelanduserighttransfermarket(secondarymarket).Theurbanlanduserighttransfermarketisamarketmonopolizedbythestate'srealestateagencies.Theruralcollectively-ownedlandmustberequisitionedbythestateasstate-ownedlandbeforeitcanentertheurbanlandtransfermarket.Theprimarymarketforurbanlandisamarketwherethestatepaysforthetransferofstate-ownedurbanland,includingtherighttousecollectively-ownedlandacquiredbythestateforcompensation.

Waysofgrantinglanduserights

Therearetwowaysofgrantinglanduserights:"zerorentsystem"and"rentalleasesystem".The"zerorentsystem"chargesdifferentlevelsoflandusefeesforthetransferredlandyearbyyearaccordingtodifferentlevels;the"rentalleasesystem"transferslanduserightsforalimitedperiodoftime,collectsthelandpriceinonelumpsum,andcollectsasmallamountofusefeeseveryyear.Inthesecondarylandmarket,thetransferoflanduserightshasdifferentspecificformssuchasleaseandmortgage.

Landprice

Intheprocessoflandtransferandtransfer,thelandusefeepaidbythetransfereetothetransferoriscomposedoftwoparts,oneistoinvestinthelandandformlandproductivityThefixedcapitalisthedepreciationandinterestofthelandcapital,andtheotherpartistherentpaidfortheuseoftheland.Thecapitalizationoflandrentismanifestedinlandprices.Asanaturalelementofproduction,landcannotcreatevaluebyitself,butsharesproductionsurplusorprofitincomebymeansofownership.Thesourceofvalueoflandrentincomeis"theproductofsurpluslabor."

Landpriceisnotthecurrencyexpressionofthevalueoflandasanelementofnaturalforce,butthepurchaseandsalepriceofthelandowner'srighttoclaimlandrentincomeforcommercialization,marketization,andmarkettransactions.Inessence,itisthecurrencyexpressionofthecapitalizationoflandrentincome..Althoughthepriceoflanddependsnotonlyontheamountoflandrentandthelevelofinterestrates,butalsoonlandsupplyanddemand,geographiclocation,ecologicalenvironment,psychologicalpreferencesandotherrelatedfactors,thesearenotthesourceofvaluecreation.Landpriceisan"unreasonableform"withnovaluebutaprice.

ProductionFactorMarket-Labor

Labor

Laboranditsvalue

Laboristhemostimportanteconomicresourceandproductionfactor.Inamarketeconomy,themarketmustbeusedtorealizeitsallocationandformprices."Laboristheentityandinternalmeasureofvalue,butithasnovalueinitself."Wagesarenotthecurrencyexpressionofthevalueoflaborfactors,buttheexpressionofthepriceoflabor.Undercapitalistconditions,laborbecomesacommodityandhasvalue.Thevalueoflaborforcedependsonthevalueofthemeansofsubsistencenecessarytoreproducethelaborforce.Throughtheemployment-laborrelationshipinthelaborcommoditytradingmarket,theunionoflaborandcapitalisrealized.

Wagesaremanifestedastheremunerationoflaborintheformofphenomena,andinessence,theyarethecurrencyexpressionofthevalueofthemeansofsubsistencenecessaryforlaborerstoreproducelabor.Undersocialistconditions,laborentersthemarketasafactorofproduction,andthroughthecontractualrelationshipbetweenmarketsupplyanddemandparties,thecombinationoflaborandpublicproductionmaterialsisrealized.Inthesocialistpublic-ownedeconomy,theprincipleofdistributionaccordingtoworkisimplemented,andtheessenceofwagesisthecurrencyexpressionofthevalueofpersonalconsumergoodsdistributedbylaborersaccordingtowork.

Unemploymentanditscauses

Intheprocessoflaborpriceformationandchanges,therelationshipbetweensupplyanddemandplaysasignificantrole.Inthemoderneconomy,whetheritisacapitalisteconomyorasocialisteconomy,thereareunemploymentofvaryingdegreesandnature.Unemploymentisthestateofseparationbetweenlaborersandthemeansofproduction,whichcanbedividedintofourtypesaccordingtothedifferentreasonsforitsformation.First,frictionalunemployment.Thisisintheprocessofthenormalflowoflabor,andthelaborersareintheperiodoflookingforwork.Thereasonistheinadaptabilitybetweenthelaborersandthejob,insufficientinformation,andtheunsmoothlaborflow.Second,structuralunemployment.Thisiswhentheeconomicstructurechanges,theworkersinthedecliningsectorcannotbeemployedbecausetheycannotadapttotheworkoftheexpandingsectorortheworkpositionistoofarawayfromtheworkers.Third,seasonalunemployment.Thisisduetotemporaryunemploymentcausedbygreatchangesintheproductionprocess.Fourth,unemploymentwithinsufficientdemand.Thisisduetotherelativelyloweconomicgrowthrateandtheunemploymentcausedbytheincreaseinemploymentopportunitiesthatcannotkeepupwiththegrowthrateofthelaborforce.Undertheconditionsofamarketeconomy,unemploymentisunavoidable,butitcanbereducedthroughefforts.

Financialmarket

Theconnotationoffinancialmarket:

Financeisthefinancingofmonetaryfunds,whichreferstothegeneraltermforcurrencycirculationandcreditactivitiesunderthemodernbankingsystem.Thefinancialmarketistheplace,institution,andsupply-demandtransactionrelationshipwherethesuppliersanddemandersofmonetaryfundscarryoutthefinancingandtradingofmonetaryfunds.Bybuyingandsellingvariouscreditinstrumentstocollect,issue,andconvertmonetaryfunds,thefinancialmarketcanrealizethetransformationofsocialidlefundsintoproductionandoperatingfunds,andimprovetheallocationandutilizationefficiencyoffundsandsocialeconomicresources.

Thecompositionofthefinancialmarket:

Thefinancialmarketismainlycomposedofthreebasicelements:participants,financialinstrumentsandorganizationalmethods.

Participantsinthefinancialmarket

Participantsinthefinancialmarketmainlyincludegovernment,centralbank,commercialbankandnon-bankfinancialinstitutions,enterprisesandresidents.

a.Inthefinancialmarket,thegovernmentmainlyactsasademanderoffundsandamanagerofthefinancialmarket.

b.Thecentralbankisthebankofthebank,thelenderoflastresortofcommercialbanksandtheprovideroffundsinthefinancialmarket.Itdirectlyregulatesthemoneysupplythroughthehandlingofsecuritiesinthefinancialmarket,andinfluencesandguidesthefinancialsector.Theoperationofthemarketisthemakerandexecutorofmonetarypolicy.

c.Commercialbanksandnon-bankingfinancialinstitutions,asfinancialintermediaries,arethemostimportantparticipantsinthefinancialmarket.Thesupplyanddemandsidesoffundsrealizefinancialcommunicationthroughtheseintermediaries.Therefore,theyactuallyItisthecenteroffinancialcommoditytrading.

d.Inthefinancialmarket,enterprisesareboththesupplierandthedemanderoffunds.Theidlefundsformedintheoperationofenterprisesareanimportantsourceoffundsinthefinancialmarket,andthedemandforfundsbyenterprisesconstitutesthemainpartofthedemandforfunds.

e.Residentsaremainlycapitalprovidersinthefinancialmarket,andtheyalsoprovidepartoftheircapitalneeds.

Financialinstruments

Financialinstrumentsarealsocalledcreditinstruments.Theyareinstrumentsusedforfinancialtransactionsinthefinancialmarket.Theyarewrittencertificatesthatprovethecreditor’srightsanddebtsofbothpartiesinacapitaltransaction.Afinancialcontractwithlegaleffect.Therearemanytypesoffinancialinstruments,whicharegenerallydividedintotwocategories.Oneiscreditanddebtcertificates,suchasbills,bonds,etc.;theotherisownershipcertificates,suchasstocks.

Theorganizationoffinancialmarkets

Theorganizationoffinancialmarketsreferstothemethodsadoptedbyfinancialexchanges.Therearethreemaintypes.Oneisthewaytoconducttransactionsinafixedplace,organized,systematic,andcentralized,suchasexchangetrading;thesecondistoconductface-to-faceanddecentralizedtransactionsbetweenbuyersandsellersatthecounteroffinancialinstitutions,suchasover-the-countertrading;Theover-the-countertransactionmethodisamethodinwhichthereisneitherafixedplacenordirectcontact,butamethodthatmainlyusestelecommunicationmeanstocompletethetransaction.

Classificationoffinancialmarkets:

(1)Accordingtodifferentfinancingmethods,financialmarketscanbedividedintotwomajorcategories:directfinancingmarketsandindirectfinancingmarketskind.

Inthefinancialmarket,directfinancingismainlytoraiselong-termcapital,whileindirectfinancingismainlytoraiseshort-termworkingcapital.

(2)Accordingtothelengthoffinancingperiod,thefinancialmarketcanbedividedintotwotypes:moneymarketandcapitalmarket.

Financialmarketprice:

Intheprocessofcapitalfinancing,thetransferofcapitalhasaprice,andthispriceismanifestedasacapitalelementintheoperationofthemarket.price.Thepriceofcapitalfactorscanbedividedintotwosituations.Oneisthepriceofborrowedcapital,whichisexpressedasinterest.Interestisnotamanifestationofcapitalvalue,butanunreasonableformofpricethatreflectscapitalizedincome.Interestisamanifestationinwhichtheownerofborrowedcapitallendstherighttousecapitaltoshareproductionsurplusorprofit,andisessentiallyacapitalizedincome.Itssourceofvalueispartofthesurplusvaluecreatedbylaborers'labor.Oneisthepriceofvirtualcapital,suchasthepriceofsecuritiessuchasstocksandbonds.Thestockitselfhasnovalueand"justrepresentstherighttoobtainincome".Itisessentiallythecurrencyexpressionofdividendcapitalizationincome,anditisanunreasonableformofpricethatismoreillusorythanthepriceofborrowedcapital.

TechnologyMarket

TechnologyandTechnologyProducts

Technologyiscreatedandinventedbyhumansthroughexperiencesummaries,scientificresearchandexperimentsonthebasisofpractice.Theknowledgeandskillstodirectlyimproveproductionorimprovelife.

Technologygenerallyexistsintheformofknowledge.Intermsofproduction,technologyiscreativeandunitary,hascontinuoususeandconsumption,andcanbeimprovedinuseandconsumption.Technologyhasusevalueandisalsotheresultofhumanlabor.Ifitisexchangedinthemarket,itwillnaturallyappearasacommodity.

Theconditionsfortechnologytobecomeacommodity

Inorderfortechnologicalachievementstobecomecommodities,theymusthaveadvanced,mature,applicability,andeconomicalconditions:technologicaladvancementmeansthatnewtechnologiesmustBetterthantheoriginaltechnology;thematurityofthetechnologymeansthatthenewtechnologymustbestableandreliable;theapplicabilityofthetechnologymeansthatthenewtechnologycanmeettheuser’sproductionandmarketneeds,adapttotheuser’sproductiontechnicalconditionsandenvironment,andbeabletouseTheeconomicsoftechnologymeansthatthetransferpriceoftechnologyshouldbereasonable,andtheapplicationcostandinputshouldbebornebytheuser.Thedifferencebetweentechnologicalcommoditiesandordinarycommoditiesisthatthetransactionsoftechnologicalcommoditiesarecontinuousandrepetitive.

Circulationoftechnologicalcommodities

Thecirculationoftechnologicalcommoditiesisrepresentedbytechnologytrade.Therearemanyspecificforms,amongwhichthemosttypicalformistechnologytransfer.Technologytransferisthetransferoftechnologicalachievements,includingpatentedtechnologyandknow-how,withacertainleveloftechnologyandpracticalvaluefromonepartytoanother.Themostimportantformoftechnologytransferislicensetrade.

Licensetradereferstoakindoftechnologytransactioncarriedoutbythetwopartiesoftechnologytradeintheformofsigningalicenseagreement.Specifically,therearethreeforms:First,exclusivelicensetrade.Itrequiresthatinacertainarea,thelicenseehastheexclusiverighttousethepurchasedtechnology,andthelicensorandanythirdpartycannotusethetransferredtechnologytomanufactureandsellproductsinthearea.Second,exclusivelicensetrading.Itscharacteristicisthatinacertainarea,thelicenseeexclusivelyusesthepurchasedtechnologytomanufactureandsellproducts,andanythirdpartyisnotallowedtousethetransferredtechnologytomanufactureandsellproductsinthisarea,butthelicensoritselfremainsinthisarea.Therighttousethetransferredtechnologytomanufactureandsellproducts.Third,ordinarylicensetrade.Itscharacteristicisthatthelicensorisallowedtousethepurchasedtechnologytomanufactureandsellproductsinthespecifiedarea.Atthesametime,thelicensorstillreservestherighttotransferthesametechnologytoathirdpartyinthearea.

Technicalcommodityprice

Technicalcommoditypricereferstothetechnologyusefeeobtainedfromthetechnologytransfereeafterthetechnologytransfer.Theparticularityoftheformationoftechnologicalcommoditypricesliesin:Firstofall,thelaborthatformsthevalueoftechnologicalcommoditiesishigh-levelcomplexlabor,whichisdoublesimplelabor.Secondly,thelaborthatformsthevalueoftechnicalcommoditiesmustincludenotonlythelaborconsumedbytheappliedtechnologyresearchinstitute,butalsothelaborconsumedbythebasicresearchinstitutedirectlyrelatedtothis.Thirdly,thelaborthatformsthevalueoftechnologicalcommoditiesismanifestedbytheamountoflaborsavedaftertheapplicationoftechnology,thatis,thenewlyaddedeconomicbenefitsofatechnologicalproduct.Inthespecificprocessofpriceformationandchange,thesupplyanddemandrelationship,thecostoftechnicalcommodities,potentialeconomicbenefits,lifecycle,transfertimes,developmentandpromotionrisks,practicalityandimplementationconditions,aswellaspricepaymentmethodsandtechnologycirculationmethods,etc.,Bothhaveactualeffectsofvaryingdegrees.

Informationmarket

Introduction

Informationisacertainkindofunderstandingandknowledgeofexternalthingsbypeople,inordertoeliminateuncertaincognition.Itisapartofhumancognition.Kindofresults.(Theconceptof"information"hasnoaccepteddefinition.Thefounderofinformationtheory,Shannon,believesinthebook"TheMathematicalTheoryofCommunication"that"informationisusedtoeliminateuncertainty";Wienerinhisbook"Cybernetics"Itisbelievedthatinformationis“thenameofthecontentexchangedwiththeoutsideworld”)Economicinformationishuman’sunderstandingofthecharacteristicsandregularityofsocialproduction,exchange,distribution,andconsumptionactivities,someofwhichhavespecialusevalueandshouldbeusedasCommoditiesbecometheobjectofmarkettransactions.

Usevalueandvalueofinformation

Inamarketeconomy,theinformationthatisputintomarkettransactionsiseconomicinformationwithcommercialvalueoreconomicfunction.Thistypeofeconomicinformationhaspracticaleconomicapplicationvalue,whichcanbringactualeconomicbenefitstotheeconomicactivitysubjectwhomastersthisinformation,andimprovethelevelofefficiencyoftheireconomicactivities.Thisistheusevalueofinformationproducts.Fromtheperspectiveoftheproductionofinformationproducts,informationproducts,especiallyinformationproductswitheconomicfunctions,aregenerallyproducedexclusivelyattheexpenseofhumanlabor,andarepartofthefruitsofhumanlabor.

Asanindispensableproductivelabor,thelaborengagedininformationcollection,processingandcreationalsoneedstobecompensatedinsomeway.Thisrequiresthecommercializationofinformationproductsandtherealizationoflaborthroughmarkettransactions.Compensationandcorrespondingbenefits.Asinformationproductsbecomecommodities,amarketwithinformationcommoditiesasthetransactionobjectwillinevitablyform,thatis,theinformationmarket.

Thecompositionoftheinformationmarket

Theinformationmarketismainlytheinformationconsultingmarket.Theindustrythatconductstheproduction,circulationandserviceofinformationproductsistheinformationconsultingindustry,whichisanimportantpartoftheinformationindustry.component.Inthemoderneconomywheretheroleofscienceandtechnologyinproductionisincreasing,theinformationindustryhasgraduallybecometheleadingindustryoftheentiresocialeconomyandiscalledthe"fourthindustry."

Thepriceofinformationcommodities

Informationcommercializationcannotonlycompensatefortheconsumptionofinformationproduction,butalsopromotetheproductionandcirculationofinformation,optimizetheallocationofinformationresources,andimprovetheentiresocietyEconomicbenefits.Ininformationtransactions,thepriceofinformationcommoditiesisbasedontheproductionandprocessingcostsofinformationcommoditiesandtheamountofsociallaborconsumptionontheonehand,andontheotherhand,ithasagreatrelationshipwiththeeconomicbenefitsofinformationcommodities.Thereisabigdeviationbetweenthepriceofinformationcommoditiesandtheirdirectcosts.Ontheonehand,thelaborconsumedininformationproductionisaveryspecialhigh-levelcomplexlabor,andunitlaborconsumptionwillformalargesocialvalue.Ontheotherhand,itismainlybecauseofitsThepotentialeconomicbenefitsaregreaterandthereisagreatermarketdemand.

Definition

Definition1

Theso-calledproductionfactorsrefertothevarioussocialresourcesneededforsocialproductionandbusinessactivities,includinglabor,land,Thecontentofcapital,technology,information,etc.,andthesecontentsareconstantlyevolvingandchangingwiththedevelopmentofthetimes.Distributionaccordingtoproductionfactorsreferstothereturnofremunerationtotheinputsubjectbythesocietybasedontheproportionandcontributionofvariousproductionfactorsinvestedintheproductionofacertainproduct.

Definition2

(ThefourtheditionofthedefinitionbyGaoHong,theownerofWesternEconomics,RenminUniversityPressofChina)

InWesterneconomics,productionfactorsaregenerallydividedTherearefourtypesoflabor,land,capital,andentrepreneurialtalent.Laborreferstothesumofhumanphysicalandintellectualabilitiesintheproductionprocess.Landnotonlyreferstolandinageneralsense,butalsoincludesallnaturalresourcesonthegroundandunderground,suchasrivers,lakes,forests,andmarinemineraldeposits.Capitalcanbeexpressedasphysicalformandcurrencyform.Physicalformisalsocalledinvestmentgoodsorcapitalgoods,suchasplant,machinery,powerfuel,rawmaterials,etc.;themonetaryformofcapitalisusuallycalledmonetarycapital.Entrepreneurshipusuallyreferstotheabilityofentrepreneurstoorganizeandmanageenterprises.

Productionfactors

Productionfactorsincludelabor,capital,andland.Foralongtime,weonlyemphasizetheroleoflaborinvaluecreationandwealthproduction.Theroleanditsdivisionofnationalincomehaveeitherbeenneglectedornotpaidenoughattentionto.Therefore,onlytheproblemoflabor'sparticipationinincomedistributionhasbeenemphasized.Whenwediscussdistributionaccordingtoproductionfactorstoday,wemustcontinuetohighlighttheroleoflabor,whilepayingsufficientattentiontocapital,technology,andmanagementandotherfactorsofproduction,sothattheycanalsobereasonablyandlegallyrewarded.Amongthem,theroleandreturnofthetwoelementsmustbeparticularlyemphasized.

Oneishumancapital.Capitalincludestwoformsofphysicalcapitalandhumancapital.Theeconomicdevelopmentpracticeofvariouscountriesshowsthattheroleofhumancapitalisincreasing,thecontributionofeducationtothegrowthrateofnationalincomeisrisingsharply,andthequality,knowledge,andtalentsofpeoplearebecomingmoreandmoredecisiveforeconomicdevelopment.Therefore,howtogetsufficientreturnsonhumancapitalbecomesveryimportantforthesustainabledevelopmentoftheeconomyandthedistributionofnationalincome.

Thesecondislandandresourceproperty.Theirroleinwealthproductionhaslongbeenrecognizedbypeople,buttherehasalwaysbeenavagueunderstandingoftheirneedtoparticipateinincomedistribution.Thisisreflectedinthefactthatmycountry'slandandnaturalresourcesareusedforfreeoratlowpricesinmanycases.Inourcountry,landandnaturalresourcesareownedbythestateorcollectives.Theirfreeorlow-costusemeansthattheirprofitshavebeeninvadedbyafewpeople.Thisisalsoanimportantreasonfortherapidexpansionoftheincomegapinourcountry.Therefore,howtoparticipateinthedistributionoflandandresourceelementsisaproblemthatshouldbeseriouslyconsideredwhenimprovingtheincomedistributionsystem.

Elementdemand

I.Characteristicsofproductionelementdemand

Enterprises’demandforproductionelementsisderivedorderivedfromconsumerdemandforconsumerproducts.

Thedemandforproductionfactorshasthefollowingcharacteristics:

1.Thedemandforproductionfactorsis"induceddemand."

2.Thedemandforproductionfactorsisnotthedemandfortheproductionfactorsthemselves,butthedemandfortheuseoftheproductionfactors.

3.Thedemandforproductionfactorscomesfromtheproducer-theenterprise.

4.Thepurposeoftheenterprise'sdemandforproductionfactorsistoproduceproducts,hopingtogetbenefitsfromthemiddleground.

2.Factorsthatdeterminethedemandforfactorsofproduction

Thesizeoftheproducer’sdemandforafactorofproductionisdeterminedbythefollowingfactors:

(1)Themarginalproductivityoffactorsofproduction.Marginalproductivityisthesizeofthenumberofproductsthatcanbeproducedbyacertainunitofproductionfactor.

(2)Thepriceoftheproductsproduced.

(3)Thepriceofproductionfactorsthemselves.

(4)Thedemandforproductionfactorsisalsoaffectedbytechnicalfactors.

(5)Theshort-termandlong-termdemandforfactorsofproductionaredifferent,andthetimefactorwillalsohaveanimpactonthedemandforfactors,becausetheshort-termandlong-termfactordemandelasticitiesaredifferent.

3.Individualenterprise’sdemandforproductionfactors:perfectcompetition

(1)Single-factorinputenterprise’sdemandforproductionfactors

1.Marginalproductivity

Therearetwowaystoexpressit.Oneisexpressedinphysicalform,expressedasthemarginalproductofinputsofproductionfactors.Theotherisexpressedintheformofvalue,expressedasthevalueofmarginalproduct.

Thevalueofthemarginalproductofproductionfactorsisequaltotheproductpriceproducedbythefactorsofproductionmultipliedbythemarginalproductofproductionfactors,namely:

MP=p·MP(1)

2.Undertheconditionofperfectcompetition,thevalueofmarginaloutputdeterminestheenterprise'sdemandforfactorinput.Thevalueofthemarginalproductoffactorsisequaltothepriceofthefactors,thatis:

VMP=w(2)

Infact,peoplecanalsofindoutbyderivingtheprofitfunctionoftheenterpriseMakethebestinputoftheelements.Theprofitfunctionofanenterpriseis:

π=p0qwLFC(3)

Amongthem,FCisthefixedcostoftheenterprise.UsingtheaboveprofitfunctiontofindthefirstderivativeofthefactorinputLandsetitequalto0,weget:

p0MPL=w(4)

Four.Changesinthedemandandquantityofproductionfactors

1.Thechangeinfactordemandmeansthatthequantityoffactordemanddoesnotchangewiththepriceofthefactoritself.Instead,itchangeswithchangesinfactorsotherthanthepriceofthefactoritself.Itmovesthepositionoftheentirefactordemandcurveupanddown.

2.Thechangeinthedemandforfactorsreferstothechangeinthedemandforfactorscausedbythechangesinthepriceofthefactorsthemselvesunderotherconditions,thatis,themovementofpointsonthesamefactordemandcurve.

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