Basicconcepts
Definition
Theword"chemistry"inChinese,ifinterpretedliterally,is"thescienceofchange".Chemistry,likephysics,isthebasicscienceofnaturalsciences.
Chemistryisanaturalsciencebasedonexperiments.MendeleevTheproposedchemistryPeriodicTablehasgreatlypromotedthedevelopmentofchemistry.Manypeoplenowcallchemistrythe"centralscience"becausechemistryisthecoreofsomescientificdisciplines,suchasmaterialsscience,nanotechnology,andbiochemistry.
ChemistryisstudiedattheatomiclevelSubstanceComposition、Structure、NatureandthechanginglawsofnatureScienceThisisalsoThecorefoundationofchemicalchange.
Therearefivesecondarydisciplinesundermodernchemistry:inorganicchemistry,organicchemistry,physicalchemistry,analyticalchemistryandpolymerchemistry.
Features
Chemistryisoneoftheimportantbasicsciences.Itisanexperiment-baseddiscipline.Intheprocessofpenetration,rapiddevelopmenthasbeenachieved,whichhasalsopromotedthedevelopmentofotherdisciplinesandtechnologies.Forexample,theresearchresultsofnucleicacidchemistryhaveimprovedcurrentbiologyfromthecellularleveltothemolecularlevel,establishingmolecularbiology.
Researchobjects
Chemistryplaysanimportantroleinourunderstandingandutilizationofsubstances.
Differentfromthestudyofsmallerparticlephysicsandnuclearphysics,thebasicpropertiesofelements,molecules,ions(clusters),andchemicalbondsinchemicalresearcharerelatedtothesubstancesandmaterialsinthemacroscopicworldofhumanexistence.Themostcloselyrelatedmicroscopiclawsofnature.Theuniverseiscomposedofmatter.Asanimportantbridgebetweenthemicroscopicandmacroscopicmaterialworlds,chemistryisoneofthemainmethodsandmeansformankindtounderstandandtransformthematerialworld.Itisasubjectwithalonghistoryandfullofvitality,closelyrelatedtohumanprogressandsocialdevelopment,anditsachievementsareanimportantsymbolofsocialcivilization.
Fromtheprimitivesocietythatstartedusingfiretothemodernsocietythatusesallkindsofman-madesubstances,humanbeingsareenjoyingthefruitsofchemistry.Humanlifecanbecontinuouslyimprovedandimproved,andthecontributionofchemistryplaysanimportantroleinit.
Researchmethod
Analyzedthechemicalcompositionofvariousstars,obtainedthelawofelementdistribution,anddiscoveredtheexistenceofsimplecompoundsininterstellarspace,whichistheevolutionofcelestialbodiesandthemodernuniverse.Learningprovidesexperimentaldataandenrichesthecontentofdialecticsofnature.
PeriodicTableofElements
ThePeriodicTableofElementsisthecoreofchemistry.Itisacollectiontableof118chemicalelements.Theperiodictableoftheelementsisaspecificformoftheperiodiclawoftheelements,whichreflectstheinternalstructureofelementatomsandthelawoftheirinterconnection.Theperiodictableisabbreviatedastheperiodictable.Theperiodictablehas7periods,16groupsand4regions.Thepositionofanelementintheperiodictablecanreflecttheatomicstructureoftheelement.Thesamerowofelementsintheperiodictableconstituteaperiod.Thenumberofelectronlayersofanelementatomofthesameperiodisequaltotheordinalnumberoftheperiod.Theelementsofthesamecolumn(theVIIIgroupincludes3columns)arecalled"family".
Familyisareflectionoftheconfigurationoftheinnerandouterelectronshellofanatom.Forexample,theexternalelectronconfiguration,IAfamilyisns1,IIIAfamilyisns2np1,Ofamilyisns2np4,IIIBfamilyis(n-1)d1·ns2andsoon.Theperiodictablecanvividlyembodythelawoftheperiodicityoftheelements.Accordingtotheperiodictable,wecaninfertheatomicstructureofvariouselementsandtheprogressivelawofthepropertiesoftheelementsandtheircompounds.
Inthosedays,Mendeleevsuccessfullypredictedthepropertiesofunknownelementsandtheircompoundsaftercomprehensivespeculationbasedonthepropertiesofthesurroundingelementsandcompoundsofunknownelementsintheperiodictable.Scientistsarenowusingtheperiodictabletoguidethesearchforelementsandcompoundsforthepreparationofsemiconductors,catalysts,chemicalpesticides,andnewmaterials.
TheperiodiclawofelementsinmodernchemistrywasfirstsortedoutbyRussianscientistDmitriIvanovichMendeleevin1869.Hecompiledthe63knownelementsatthetimeArrangedintheformofatableaccordingtothesizeoftheatomicweight,andtheelementswithsimilarchemicalpropertiesareplacedinthesamerow,whichistheembryonicformoftheperiodictable.Usingtheperiodictable,Mendeleevsuccessfullypredictedthepropertiesofelementsthathadnotyetbeendiscoveredatthetime(gallium,scandium,germanium).In1913,theBritishscientistMoselerusedcathoderaystohitmetalstoproduceX-rays.Hefoundthatthegreatertheatomicnumber,thehigherthefrequencyofX-rays.Therefore,hebelievedthatthepositivechargeofthenucleusdeterminesthechemicalpropertiesoftheelement.Thearrangementofpositivecharges(thatis,thenumberofprotonsoratomicnumber)hasbecomethecontemporaryperiodictableaftermanyyearsofrevision.
ResearchingHistory
Thehistoricaloriginofchemistryisveryold.Itcanbesaidthattheearliestchemicalpracticeactivitiesbeganwhenhumanslearnedtousefire.Ourancestorsdrilledwoodtomakefire,usedfiretobakefood,keptwarmincoldnights,droveawaybeasts,andmadefulluseoftheglowandheatgeneratedduringburning.Atthattime,thiswasjustanaccumulationofexperience.Theformationofchemistryknowledgeandthedevelopmentofchemistryhavegonethroughalongandtortuousroad.Itdevelopsalongwiththeprogressofhumansocietyandistheinevitableresultofsocialdevelopment.Anditsdevelopmentpromotesthedevelopmentofproductiveforcesandpromotestheadvancementofhistory.Thedevelopmentofchemistrymainlyexperiencedthefollowingperiods:
Germinationperiod
Fromancienttimesto1500BC,humanslearnedtomakepotteryfromclayandmineralsintheragingfire.Burningmetal,learningtobrewwinefromgrains,dyeingsilkandlinenandotherfabrics,thesearetheearliestchemicalprocessesthathavebeenexploredforalongtimeunderthedirectinspirationofpracticalexperience,butchemicalknowledgehasnotyetbeenformed,justchemistryBuddingperiod.Inancienttimes,primitivehumansdiscoveredandusedfirewhenfightingagainstvariousdisastersinnaturefortheirsurvival.Primitivehumansbegantousefireandenteredcivilizationfrombarbarism,andatthesametimetheybegantousechemicalmethodstounderstandandtransformnaturalsubstances.Combustionisachemicalphenomenon.(Thediscoveryanduseoffirehasimprovedtheconditionsforhumanexistence,andhasmadehumanssmartandpowerful.)Aftermasteringfire,humansbegantoeatcookedfood;thenhumanshavediscoveredsomesubstancesChanges,suchasburningcharcoalfireoncopperoresuchasemeraldgreenmalachite,willproduceredcopper.InChina,theSpringandAutumnPeriodandtheWarringStatesperiodbegantotransformfromabronzesociety,andthesocialchangestriggeredbyironwarecattlefarmingpromotedthedevelopmentofchemistry.
Inthisway,intheprocessofgraduallyunderstandingandusingthechangesofthesesubstances,humanshaveproducedproductswithgreatusevalueforhumans.Humanbeingsgraduallylearnedtomakepotteryandsmelt;latertheylearnedtobrew,dyeandsoon.Theseproductsprocessedandtransformedfromnaturalmaterialshavebecomeasymbolofancientcivilization.Onthebasisoftheseproductionpractices,ancientchemistryknowledgeemerged.
Pillperiod
Fromabout1500BCto1650AD,chemistrywascontrolledbyalchemyandalchemy.Inordertoobtaintheelixirofimmortalityorgoldthatsymbolizeswealth,alchemistsandalchemistsstartedtheearliestchemicalexperiments,andthenbooksrecordingandsummarizingalchemyappearedoneafteranother.Although,thealchemistsallendedinfailure,butintheprocessofrefiningtheelixir,theyrealizedthemutualtransformationbetweensubstancesusingartificialmethodsintheprocessofexploringthemethodof"turningstonesintogold",andaccumulatedalotofmaterialoccurrences.Theconditionsandphenomenaofchemicalchangeshaveaccumulatedawealthofpracticalexperienceforthedevelopmentofchemistry.
Theterm"chemistry"thatappearedatthattimemeant"alchemy".Butwiththedeclineofalchemyandalchemy,peopleseemoreofitsabsurdandunreliableside.
Phlogistonperiod
Thisperiod,from1650to1775,wasthegestationperiodofmodernchemistry.Withtheaccumulationofexperienceinthemetallurgicalindustryandlaboratories,peoplesummarizeperceptualknowledgeandconducttheoreticalresearchonchemicalchanges,makingchemistryabranchofnaturalscience.ThesignofthebeginningofthisstagewasthattheBritishchemistBoylepointedoutscientificconceptsforchemicalelements.Subsequently,chemistrywasliberatedfromalchemybythephlogistontheory.Phlogistontheorybelievesthatcombustiblescanburnbecauseitcontainsphlogiston.Thecombustionprocessistheprocessofreleasingphlogistonfromcombustibles.Althoughthistheoryiswrong,itunifiesalargenumberofchemicalfactsunderoneconceptandexplainsmanychemicalphenomena..
Duringthemorethanonehundredyearsofphlogistictheory,chemistshavedonealotofexperimentstoexplainvariousphenomena,discoveredtheexistenceofmanykindsofgases,andaccumulatedmorenewknowledgeaboutmaterialtransformation.Inparticular,Phlogistonsaidthatchemicalreactionsaretheprocessoftransferringonesubstancetoanother,andthatsubstancesareconservedinchemicalreactions.Theseviewpointslaidthefoundationformodernchemicalthinking.Thisperiodnotonlymadepreparationsforthedevelopmentofmodernchemistryintermsofscientificpractice,butalsoideologically.Thisperiodbecamethegestationalperiodofmodernchemistry.
Beginninginthe16thcentury,Europeanindustrialproductionflourished,whichpromotedthecreationanddevelopmentofmedicinalchemistryandmetallurgicalchemistry.Turningalchemytolifeandpracticalapplications,andthenpayingmoreattentiontothestudyofthechemicalchangesofmatteritself.Afterthescientificconceptofelementswasestablished,throughpreciseexperimentalresearchoncombustionphenomena,thescientificoxidationtheoryandthelawofconservationofmasswereestablished,andthenthelawofdefiniteratio,thelawofmultiplicationandthelawofcombinedquantitywereestablished,whichisthefurtherscientificdevelopmentofchemistry.Foundation.
Developmentperiod
Thisperiod,from1775to1900,istheperiodofmodernchemistrydevelopment.Around1775,Lavoisierusedquantitativechemistryexperimentstoexpoundthetheoryofcombustionandoxidation,whichopenedupaperiodofquantitativechemistryandallowedchemistrytodevelopontherighttrack.Atthebeginningofthe19thcentury,theBritishchemistDaltonputforwardthemodernatomtheory,highlightingtheatomicmassofvariouselementsasitsmostbasicfeature.Theintroductionoftheconceptofquantityisamajordifferencefromancientatomism.Modernatomictheorygaveareasonableexplanationtothechemicalknowledgeandtheoriesatthattime,andbecameaunifiedtheorytoexplainchemicalphenomena.ThentheItalianscientistAvogadroproposedthemolecularconcept.Sincetheuseofatom-moleculetheorytostudychemistry,chemistryhastrulybeenestablishedasascience.Duringthisperiod,manybasiclawsofchemistrywereestablished.TheRussianchemistMendeleevdiscoveredtheperiodiclawoftheelements,andtheGermanchemistsLiebigandWeilerdevelopedthetheoryoforganicstructure.Allofthesemadechemistryasystematicscienceandlaidthefoundationforthedevelopmentofmodernchemistry.
Inthesecondhalfofthe19thcentury,thermodynamicsandotherphysicaltheorieswereintroducedintochemistry,whichnotonlyclarifiedtheconceptsofchemicalequilibriumandreactionrate,butalsoquantitativelyjudgedthedirectionandconditionsofmaterialtransformationinchemicalreactions.Thetheoreticalfoundationsofsolutiontheory,ionizationtheory,electrochemistryandchemicalkineticshavebeenestablishedsuccessively.Thebirthofphysicalchemistrybroughtchemistrytoanewlevelintheory.Throughtheanalysisofminerals,manynewelementshavebeendiscovered,coupledwiththeexperimentalverificationofatomicandmoleculartheory,theclassicalchemicalanalysismethodhasitsownsystem.Thesynthesisofoxalicacidandurea,thecreationoftheconceptofatomicvalence,theestablishmentoftheoriessuchasthesix-ringstructureofbenzeneandthetetrahedronofcarbonvalencebonds,theresolutionoftartaricacidintoopticalisomers,andthediscoveryofmolecularasymmetry,etc.,ledtothediscoveryoforganicTheestablishmentofchemicalstructuretheoryhasenabledpeopletohaveadeeperunderstandingofthenatureofmoleculesandlaidthefoundationfororganicchemistry.
Modernperiod
Thechemistryofthe20thcenturyisasciencebasedonexperiments.Experimentandtheoryhavealwaysbeentwomutuallydependentandmutuallyreinforcingaspectsofchemistryresearch.Afterenteringthe20thcentury,duetotheinfluenceofthedevelopmentofotherdisciplinesofnaturalsciencesandtheextensiveapplicationofcontemporaryscientifictheories,techniquesandmethods,chemistryhasmadeconsiderableprogressinunderstandingthecomposition,structure,synthesis,andtestingofsubstances.Andmanyimportantresultshavebeenachievedintheory.Onthebasisofthefourbranchesofinorganicchemistry,analyticalchemistry,organicchemistryandphysicalchemistry,anewbranchofchemistryhasemerged.
Theapplicationofmodernphysicstheoryandtechnology,mathematicalmethodsandcomputertechnologyinchemistryhavegreatlypromotedthedevelopmentofmodernchemistry.Attheendofthe19thcentury,thediscoveriesofelectrons,X-raysandradioactivitycreatedtheconditionsforsignificantprogressinchemistryinthe20thcentury.
Instructuralchemistry,themodernnuclearatommodelestablishedandestablishedbythediscoveryofelectronshasnotonlyenrichedanddeepenedtheunderstandingoftheperiodictable,butalsodevelopedmoleculartheory.Applyquantummechanicstostudymolecularstructure.
Startingfromthestudyofhydrogenmolecularstructure,itgraduallyrevealedthenatureofchemicalbonds,andsuccessivelyestablishedvalencebondtheory,molecularorbitaltheoryandcoordinationfieldtheory.Thetheoryofchemicalreactionalsogoesdeepintothemicroscopicrealm.UsingX-raysasanewanalyticalmethodtostudythestructureofmattercanprovideinsightintothecrystalchemicalstructureofmatter.DiffractionmethodsfordeterminingchemicalstereostructureincludeX-raydiffraction,electrondiffractionandneutrondiffraction.Amongthem,theprecisemolecularthree-dimensionalstructureinformationaccumulatedbytheapplicationofX-raydiffractionmethodisthemost.
Spectroscopymethodsforstudyingthestructureofmatterhavealsobeenextendedfromvisible,ultraviolet,andinfraredspectroscopytonuclearmagneticresonancespectroscopy,electronicself-selectedresonancespectroscopy,photoelectronenergyspectroscopy,rayresonancespectroscopy,Mössbauerspectroscopy,etc.Afterbeingusedinconjunctionwithcomputers,ithasaccumulatedalargeamountofmaterialstructureandperformance-relateddata,andisdevelopingfromexperiencetotheory.Themagnificationoftheelectronmicroscopecontinuestoincrease,andpeoplecandirectlyobservethestructureofthemolecule.
Theclassicelementtheoryhasundergoneprofoundchangesduetothediscoveryofradioactivity.Fromtheestablishmentofthetheoryofradioactivedecay,thediscoveryofisotopestotherealizationofartificialnuclearreactionsandnuclearfission,thediscoveryofdeuterium,thediscoveryofneutrons,positrons,andotherelementaryparticles,notonlytheunderstandingofhumanbeingshasreachedthesubatomiclevel,butalsothecorrespondingExperimentalmethodsandtheories;notonlyrealizedtheancientalchemists’thoughtsoftransformingelements,butalsochangedpeople’soutlookontheuniverse.
Asasymbolofthe20thcentury,mankindbegantomasterandusenuclearenergy.Sub-disciplinessuchasradiochemistryandnuclearchemistryhaveemergedoneafteranotherandaredevelopingrapidly;interdisciplinarysubjectssuchasisotopegeologyandisotopecosmologyhavebeenbornoneafteranother.Theperiodictableoftheelementshasbeenexpanded,withelement109,andsuperheavyelementsarebeingexploredtoverifytheelement"stableislandhypothesis."Thedoctrineoftheoriginofelementsthatisdependentonmoderncosmologyandtheagedeterminationofnuclidecloselyrelatedtothetheoryofchemistryareconstantlysupplementingandrenewingtheconceptofelements.
Thesynthesisofphenolicresinhasopenedupthefieldofpolymerscience.Thesynthesisofpolyamidefibersinthe1930smadetheconceptofpolymerswidelyconfirmed.Later,thethreeaspectsofpolymersynthesis,structureandperformanceresearch,andapplicationkeptcooperatingandpromotingeachother,whichenabledtherapiddevelopmentofpolymerchemistry.
Thesynthesisandapplicationofvariouspolymermaterialsprovideavarietyofimportantmaterialswithexcellentperformanceandlowcostformodernindustryandagriculture,transportation,medicalandhealth,militarytechnology,aswellaspeople’sfood,clothing,housingandtransportation.Becomeanimportantsymbolofmodernmaterialcivilization.Thedevelopmentofthepolymerindustryhasbecomeanimportantpillarofthechemicalindustry.The20thcenturywasthegoldenageoforganicsynthesis.Therehavebeengreatdevelopmentsinchemicalseparationmethodsandstructuralanalysismethods.Manystructuralproblemsofnaturalorganiccompoundshavebeensatisfactorilyresolved,andmanynewimportantorganicreactionsandspecificorganicreagentshavebeendiscovered.Onthisbasis,refinedOrganicsynthesis,especiallyinasymmetricsynthesis,hasmadegreatprogress.
Ontheonehand,avarietyoforganiccompoundswithspecialstructuresandspecialpropertiesaresynthesized;ontheotherhand,basiclifesubstancessuchasunstablefreeradicalstobiologicallyactiveproteinsandnucleicacidsaresynthesized.Organicchemistshavealsosynthesizednaturalorganiccompoundswithcomplexstructuresandspecificdrugs.Theseachievementshaveplayedahugeroleinpromotingthedevelopmentofscience;ithasprovidedfavorableconditionsforthesynthesisofhighlybiologicallyactivesubstances,andforcoordinatingwithotherdisciplinestosolvethesyntheticproblemsoflivingsubstancesandthechemicalproblemsofpre-livingsubstances.
Sincethe20thcentury,thedevelopmenttrendofchemistrycanbesummarizedasfollows:frommacrotomicro,fromqualitativetoquantitative,fromstabletometastable,fromexperiencetotheory,andthenusedtoguidedesignAndpioneeringandinnovativeresearch.Ontheonehand,itprovidesasmanynewsubstancesandmaterialsaspossiblefortheproductionandtechnologydepartments;ontheotherhand,itcontinuouslyproducesnewdisciplinesintheprocessofinterpenetratingwithothernaturalsciences,anddevelopstowardthedirectionofexploringlifesciencesandtheoriginoftheuniverse.
Subjectclassification
Chemicalchanges:Changescausedbyothersubstances(candleburning,steelrusting,fooddecay,foodbrewing,animalandplantbreathing,Photosynthesis...).
Chemicalproperties:Chemicalproperties,chemistryterminology,arethepropertiesofsubstancesshowninchemicalchanges.Suchasthechemicalgeneralityofthesubstancecategory:acidity,alkalinity,oxidizing,reducing,thermalstabilityandsomeothercharacteristics.
Inthedevelopmentprocessofchemistry,manybranchesofdifferentlevelsarederivedaccordingtothedifferentmoleculartypes,researchmethods,purposes,andtasks.Beforethe1920s,chemistrywastraditionallydividedintofourbranches:inorganicchemistry,organicchemistry,physicalchemistry,andanalyticalchemistry.Afterthe1920s,duetotherapiddevelopmentoftheworldeconomy,thebirthoftheelectronictheoryofchemicalbondsandquantummechanics,theriseofelectronictechnologyandcomputertechnology,chemicalresearchhasobtainednewmethodsboththeoreticallyandexperimentally,whichhasledthissubjecttochangefromSincethe1930s,ithasdevelopedrapidlyandhasabrandnewlook.Chemistrycontentisgenerallydividedintosevencategories,includingbiochemistry,organicchemistry,polymerchemistry,appliedchemistryandchemicalengineering,physicalchemistry,andinorganicchemistry,withatotalof80items,whichactuallyincludesevensub-disciplines.
Accordingtothecurrentdevelopmentofchemistryanditsinterpenetrationwithastronomy,physics,mathematics,biology,medicine,earthscienceandotherdisciplines,chemistrycanbeclassifiedasfollows:
InorganicChemistry
Elementalchemistry,inorganicsyntheticchemistry,inorganicpolymerchemistry,inorganicsolidchemistry,coordinationchemistry(iecomplexchemistry),isotopechemistry,bioinorganicchemistry,metalorganicchemistry,metalenzymechemistry,etc..
OrganicChemistry
GeneralOrganicChemistry,OrganicSyntheticChemistry,MetalandNon-metalOrganicChemistry,PhysicalOrganicChemistry,BioorganicChemistry,OrganicAnalyticalChemistry.
PhysicalChemistry
Structuralchemistry,thermochemistry,chemicalthermodynamics,chemicalkinetics,electrochemistry,solutiontheory,interfacechemistry,colloidalchemistry,quantumchemistry,catalysisandtheories,etc..
AnalyticalChemistry
Chemicalanalysis,instrumentationandnewtechnologyanalysis.Includingperformancemeasurement,monitoring,variousspectroscopyandphotochemicalanalysis,variouselectrochemicalanalysismethods,massspectrometryanalysis,variouselectronmicroscopy,imagingandtopographyanalysismethods,onlineanalysis,activityanalysis,real-timeanalysis,etc.,variousphysicalandchemicalpropertiesAndphysiologicalactivitydetectionmethods,separationmethodssuchasextraction,ionexchange,chromatography,massspectrometry,separationandanalysiscombined,syntheticseparationandanalysistriplecombineduse,etc.
PolymerChemistry
Naturalpolymerchemistry,polymersyntheticchemistry,polymerphysicalchemistry,polymerapplication,polymerphysics.
NuclearChemistry
Radioactiveelementchemistry,radioanalyticalchemistry,radiationchemistry,isotopechemistry,nuclearchemistry.
Biochemistry
Generalbiochemistry,enzymes,microbialchemistry,phytochemistry,immunochemistry,fermentationandbioengineering,foodchemistry,coalchemistry,etc.
Otherborderdisciplinesrelatedtochemistryinclude:geochemistry,oceanchemistry,atmosphericchemistry,environmentalchemistry,cosmicchemistry,interstellarchemistry,etc.
Greenchemistry
Greenchemistryisalsoknownas"environmentallysoundchemistry","environmentallyfriendlychemistry",and"cleanchemistry".Greenchemistryhasonlybeenproducedanddevelopedinthepasttenyears,Isa"newchemicalbaby".Itinvolvesorganicsynthesis,catalysis,biochemistry,analyticalchemistryandotherdisciplines,withawiderangeofcontents.Thebiggestfeatureofgreenchemistryistheuseofscientificmethodstopreventpollutionatthebeginning,sotheprocessandtheendarezeroemissionsorpollution.Manycountriesintheworldhavetaken"greeningofchemistry"asoneofthemaindirectionsofchemicalprogressinthenewcentury.
Definition
Usechemicaltechnology,principlesandmethodstoeliminatechemicalsthataretoxicandharmfultohumanhealth,safetyandtheecologicalenvironment,soitisalsocalledenvironmentallyfriendlychemistryorcleanchemistry.Infact,greenchemistryisnotanewscience.
Greenchemistrynotonlyhassignificantsocial,environmentalandeconomicbenefits,butalsoshowsthatthenegativeeffectsofchemistrycanbeavoided,showinghumaninitiative.Greenchemistryembodiestheinterconnectionandinteractionofchemicalscience,technologyandsociety.Itistheproductofthehighlydevelopedchemicalscienceandtheroleofsocietyinthedevelopmentofchemicalscience.Itisthearrivalofanewstageforchemistryitself.Asthegenerationofthenewcentury,notonlymustbeabletodevelopnewandmoreenvironmentallyfriendlychemistrytopreventchemicalpollution;butalsotolettheyoungergenerationunderstandgreenchemistry,acceptgreenchemistry,andmakeduecontributionstogreenchemistry.
Famoustheory
1."Atomiceconomy",thatis,makefulluseofeachatominthereactant,sothatitcanmakefulluseofresourcesandpreventpollution.TheconceptofatomiceconomywasputforwardbythefamousAmericanorganicchemistTrostin1992(forwhichhewontheacademicprizeofthe1998PresidentialGreenChemistryChallengeAward).Theuseofatomicutilizationtomeasuretheatomiceconomyofthereactionishighlyefficient.Organicsynthesisshouldmaximizetheuseofeachatomoftherawmaterialmolecule,sothatitcanbeincorporatedintothetargetmoleculetoachievezeroemissions.Greenorganicsynthesisshouldbeatomicallyeconomical.Thehighertheatomicutilizationrate,thelesswasteproducedbythereactionandthelesspollutionitcausestotheenvironment.
2.Itsconnotationismainlyembodiedinthefive"Rs":thefirstisReduction-"reduction",thatis,toreducetheemissionsof"threewastes";thesecondisReuse-"reuse",Suchascatalystsandcarriersinthechemicalindustryprocess,whicharerequiredtoreducecostsandreducewaste;thethirdisRecycling-"recycling",whichcaneffectivelyachievetherequirementsof"savingresources,lesspollution,andcostreduction";thefourthisRegeneration-"regeneration",thatis,aneffectivewaytoturnwasteintotreasure,saveresourcesandenergy,andreducepollution;thefifthisRejection-"rejection",whichreferstosomeirreplaceable,andcannotberecycled,regeneratedandreused.,Rawmaterialswithtoxicsideeffectsandobviouspollutioneffects,refusetouseinthechemicalprocess,thisisthemostfundamentalwaytopreventpollution.
Importance
Traditionalchemicalindustryhascausedseriouspollutiontotheenvironment.Everyyear,theworldproduces300millionto400milliontonsofhazardouswaste,whichisharmfultotheenvironment.,Andthreatenthesurvivalofmankind.Whetherthechemicalindustrycanproducechemicalsthatarenotharmfultotheenvironment,orevendevelopprocessesthatdonotproducewaste,peopleofinsighthaveputforwardthecallforgreenchemistry,andithasimmediatelyreceivedapositiveresponsefromtheworld.Thecoreofgreenchemistryistousechemicalprinciplestoeliminatepollutionfromthesource.
Greenchemistryposesanewchallengeforchemists,whichispaidattentiontobytheinternationalcommunity.In1996,theUnitedStatesestablishedthe"GreenChemistryChallengeAward"torecognizecompaniesandscientistswhohavemadeoutstandingachievementsinthefieldofgreenchemistry.Greenchemistrywillchangethefaceofthechemicalindustryandbenefitfuturegenerations.
Sofar,mostoftheprocessesinthechemicalindustryweredevelopedmorethan20yearsago.Theprocessingcostsatthattimemainlyincludedthecostsofrawmaterials,energyconsumptionandlabor.Becausethechemicalindustrydischargesalargeamountoftoxicandharmfulsubstancesintotheatmosphere,waterandsoil.Taking1993asanexample,theUnitedStatesonlyestimatedtheemissionsof365toxicsubstances,andthechemicalindustry’semissionswere3billionpounds.Asaresult,processingcostshaveincreasedwastecontrol,treatment,andburying.Environmentalprotectionmonitoring,compliancewithstandards,accidentliabilitycompensationandotherexpenses.In1992,theUSchemicalindustryspentUS$115billiononenvironmentalprotectionandUS$700billionwasspentoncleaninguppollutedareas.In1996,thetotalchemicalsalesofDupontCompanyintheUnitedStateswereUS$18billion,andtheenvironmentalprotectionexpenditurewasUS$1billion.Therefore,fromtheperspectiveofenvironmentalprotection,economicandsocialrequirements.Thechemicalindustrycannolongerbearthecostofusingandproducingtoxicandhazardoussubstances.Itisnecessarytovigorouslyresearchanddevelopgreenchemistrytoreduceandeliminatepollutionfromthesource.
In1990,theUnitedStatesenactedthePollutionPreventionAct.EstablishpollutionpreventionasanationalpolicyoftheUnitedStates.Theso-calledpollutionpreventionistomakewastenolongerbeproduced.Thereisnolongeraproblemofwastedisposal,andgreenchemistryisthebasisandimportanttooltoachievepollutionprevention.InApril1995,USVicePresidentGoreannouncedtheNationalEnvironmentalTechnologyStrategy.Thegoalistoreducewasteby40%-50%byEarthDay2020,andreducerawmaterialconsumptionby20%-25%foreachdevice.In1996,theUnitedStatesestablishedthePresidentialGreenChemistryChallengeAward.Thesegovernmentactionshavegreatlypromotedthevigorousdevelopmentofgreenchemistry.
Inaddition,Japanhasalsoformulatedanewsunshineplan.Inthefieldofenvironmentaltechnologyresearchanddevelopment.Thecontentsofgreenchemistry,suchasenvironmentallysoundmanufacturingtechnology,environmentalpollutionreductiontechnology,andcarbondioxidefixationandutilizationtechnology,havebeendetermined.Inshort,theresearchofgreenchemistryhasbecomeanimportantresearchanddevelopmentdirectionforforeignenterprises,governmentsandacademia.Thisisnotonlyaseverechallengeforourcountry,butalsoararedevelopmentopportunity.
Education
Development
mycountry’schemistryeducationstartsfromthethirdgradeandhighschoolhasbecomeoneofthesciencesubjects.Inadditiontotwocompulsorytextbooks,thereisalsoa"ChemistryandTechnology","MaterialStructureandProperties","PrinciplesofChemicalReactions","BasicsofOrganicChemistry"and"ExperimentalChemistry"sixelectivecourses.Therearesixeditionsnationwide:People'sEducationEdition,JiangsuEducationEdition,ShandongEducationEdition,ZhejiangScienceEdition,GuangdongEducationEdition,andShangjiaoEdition.Inthereformofthenewcollegeentranceexamination,itbecameoneofthefourelectivesubjects.
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Preliminaryexperimentalequipment
Testtube,plasticdropper,beaker,tweezers,testtubeholder,volumetricflask,traybalance,glassrod,funnel,separatoryfunnel,alcohollamp,alcoholblowtorch,Erlenmeyerflask,gascylinder,condenser,evaporatingdish,ironstand,medicinespoon,burningspoon,etc.
Traininggoals
Thismajoristocultivatebasictheories,basicknowledgeandstrongexperimentalskillsinchemistry,andbeabletoengageinscientificresearchinscientificresearchinstitutions,collegesanduniversities,enterprisesandinstitutions,etc.Seniorprofessionalsinteachingandmanagementwork.
Trainingrequirements
Studentsofthismajormainlystudythebasicknowledge,basictheories,basicskillsandrelatedengineeringtechnologyknowledgeinchemistry,andreceivescientificthinkinginbasicresearchandappliedbasicresearchAndscientificexperimenttraining,havegoodscientificliteracy,andhavethebasicskillstoapplythelearnedknowledgeandexperimentalskillsforappliedresearch,technologydevelopment,andtechnologymanagement.
Knowledgeandskills
1.Masterthebasictheoriesandbasicknowledgeofmathematicsandphysics;
2.Masterthebasicknowledge,basicprinciplesandbasicexperimentalskillsofinorganicchemistry,analyticalchemistry(includinginstrumentalanalysis),organicchemistry,physicalchemistry(includingstructuralchemistry),chemicalengineeringandchemicaldrawing;
3.Understandthegeneralprinciplesandknowledgeofsimilarmajors;
4.Understandnationalpoliciesandregulationsonscienceandtechnology,chemical-relatedindustries,intellectualpropertyrights,etc.;
5.Understandthetheoreticalfrontier,applicationprospects,latestdevelopmenttrendsofchemistry,andthedevelopmentstatusofchemistry-relatedindustries;
6.MasterthebasicmethodsofChineseandforeignlanguagedataquery,documentretrievalandusemoderninformationtechnologytoobtainrelevantinformation;haveacertainexperimentaldesign,createexperimentalconditions,summarize,organize,andanalyzeexperimentalresults,writepapers,andparticipateinacademicexchanges.
Settingupcolleges
First-leveldiscipline | 0703Chemistry | PekingUniversity |
NankaiUniversity | ||
JilinUniversity | ||
FudanUniversity | ||
NanjingUniversity | ||
ZhejiangUniversity | ||
UniversityofScienceandTechnologyofChina | ||
XiamenUniversity | ||
Second-leveldiscipline | 070301InorganicChemistry | SunYat-senUniversity |
070302AnalyticalChemistry | TsinghuaUniversity | |
WuhanUniversity | ||
HunanUniversity | ||
070303OrganicChemistry | SichuanUniversity | |
LanzhouUniversity | ||
070304PhysicalChemistry | BeijingNormalUniversityUniversity | |
FuzhouUniversity | ||
ShandongUniversity | ||
070305PolymerChemistryandPhysics | SunYat-senUniversity |
Key(Cultivation)Disciplines
SecondaryDisciplines | 070303OrganicChemistry | ZhengzhouUniversity |
070304PhysicalChemistry | TsinghuaUniversity | |
070305PolymerChemistryandPhysics | BeijingUniversityofChemicalTechnology |
WorldUniversityProfessionalRanking
Ranking | |||
|---|---|---|---|
1 | MassachusettsInstituteofTechnology | UnitedStates | 97.5 |
2 | UniversityofCalifornia-Berkeley | UnitedStates | 90.5 |
3 | HarvardUniversity | UnitedStates | 90.4 |
4 | StanfordUniversity | UnitedStates | 87.0 |
5 | CaliforniaInstituteofTechnology | UnitedStates | 85.0 |
6 | UniversityofOxford | UnitedKingdom | 84.8 |
7 | UniversityofCalifornia-LosAngeles | UnitedStates | 84.7 |
8 | UniversityofCambridge | UnitedKingdom | 83.8 |
9 | TheUniversityofHongKong | HongKong,China | 83.3 |
10 | ImperialCollegeofTechnology | UnitedKingdom | 83.2 |
11 | HongKongUniversityofScienceandTechnology | HongKong,China | 82.9 |
12 | SwissFederalInstituteofTechnology-Zurich | Switzerland | 82.7 |
13 | NationalUniversityofSingapore | Singapore | 82.1 |
14 | UniversityofTokyo | Japan | 81.5 |
15 | FederalInstituteofTechnologyLausanne | Switzerland | 80.8 |
16 | YaleUniversity | UnitedStates | p>80.4 |
17 | NorthwesternUniversity(UnitedStates) | UnitedStates | 79.4 |
18 | KyotoUniversity | Japan | 78.8 |
19 | PekingUniversity | China | 78.6 |
20 | UniversityofMelbourne | Australia | 78.0 |
ProfessionalRanking
Ranking | Schoolname | Stars | Numberofschools |
1 | PekingUniversity | 5★ | 429 |
2 | NanjingUniversity | 5★ | 429 |
3 | JilinUniversity | 5★ | 429 |
4 | EastChinaUniversityofScienceandTechnology | 5★ | 429 |
5 | XiamenUniversity | 5★ | 429 |
6 | FudanUniversity | 5★ | 429 |
7 | TianjinUniversity | 5★ | 429 |
8 | NankaiUniversity | 5★ | 429 |
9 | SunYat-senUniversity | 5★ | 429 |
10 | WuhanUniversity | 5★ | 429 |
11 | LanzhouUniversity | 5★ | 429 |
12 | HunanUniversity | 5★ | 429 |
13 | DalianUniversityofTechnology | 5★ | 429 |
14 | BeijingInstituteofTechnology | 5★ | 429 |
15 | FuzhouUniversity | 5★ | 429 |
16 | NanjingUniversityofScienceandTechnology | 5★ | 429 |
17 | SichuanUniversity | 5★ | 429 |
18 | ZhejiangUniversityofTechnology | 5★ | 429 |
19 | ShaanxiNormalUniversity | 5★ | 429 |
20 | NorthwestUniversity | 5★ | 429 | tr>
NobelPrizeinChemistry
Early20thCentury
In1901,J.H.VanHoff(Netherlands)discoveredthelawsofchemicalkineticsinsolutionAndthelawofosmoticpressure.
In1902,E.H.Fischer(Germany)synthesizedcarbohydratesandpurineinducers.
In1903,S.A.Arrhenius(Sweden)proposedtheelectrolytesolutiontheory.
In1904,W.Ramsay(UK)discoveredinertgasintheair.
In1905,A.VonBeyer(Germany)wasengagedintheresearchoforganicdyesandhydrogenatedaromaticcompounds.
In1906,H.Moissan(France)wasengagedintheresearchoffluorine.
In1907,E.Bischner(Germany)wasengagedintheresearchofenzymeandenzymechemistryandbiology.
In1908,E.Rutherford(UK)firstproposedthemetamorphosistheoryofradioactiveelements.
In1909,W.Ostwald(Germany)wasengagedintheresearchofcatalysis,chemicalequilibriumandreactionspeed.
In1910,O.Wallach(Germany)wasthefounderofalicycliccompounds.
In1911,M.Curie(France)discoveredradiumandpolonium.
In1912,V.Grignard(France)inventedGrignardreagent-organomagnesiumreagent.P.Sabati(France)usesfinemetalpowderasacatalysttoinventaneffectivemethodforpreparinghydrogenatedunsaturatedhydrocarbons.
In1913,A.Werner(Switzerland)wasengagedintheresearchofcoordinationcompoundsandthevalenceofatomsinthemolecule.
In1914,T.W.Richards(UnitedStates)devotedhimselftothestudyofatomicweightandaccuratelydeterminedtheatomicweightofmanyelements.
In1915,R.Willstedt(Germany)wasengagedintheresearchofplantpigments(chlorophyll).
Noawardswereawardedfrom1916to1917.
In1918,F.Haber(Germany)researchedandinventedaneffectivelarge-scaleammoniasynthesismethod.
In1920,W.H.Nernst(Germany)wasengagedintheresearchofelectrochemistryandthermodynamics.
In1921,F.Sodi(UK)wasengagedinthestudyofradioactivematerialsandnamed"isotopes"forthefirsttime.
In1922,F.W.Aston(UK)discoveredisotopesinnon-radioactiveelementsanddevelopedamassspectrometer.
In1923,F.Pregel(Austria)createdamicroanalysismethodfororganiccompounds.
In1925,R.A.Siegmundi(Germany)wasengagedintheresearchofcolloidalsolutionsandestablishedcolloidalchemistry.
In1926,T.Svedberg(Sweden)wasengagedinthestudyofdispersionsystemsincolloidalchemistry.
In1927,H.O.Wieland(Germany)researchedanddeterminedthechemicalstructureofcholicacidandmanysimilarsubstances.
In1928,A.Windaus(Germany)researchedafamilyofsterolsandtheirrelationshipwithvitamins.
In1929,A.Harden(UK),vonEuler-Scherpin(Swedish)explainedtheprocessofsugarfermentationandtheroleofenzymes.
In1930,H.Fischer(Germany)wasengagedinresearchonthepropertiesandstructureofhemeandchlorophyll.
In1931,C.Bosch(Germany)andF.Bergius(German)inventedanddevelopedhigh-pressurechemicalmethods.
In1932,I.Ranmere(USA)foundedsurfacechemistry.
In1934,H.C.Yuri(USA)discoveredheavyhydrogen.
In1935,J.F.J.CurieandI.J.Curie(France)inventedartificialradioactiveelements.
In1936,P.J.W.Debye(USA)proposedtheconceptofmolecularmagneticdipoleandappliedX-raydiffractiontoclarifythemolecularstructure.
In1937,W.N.Haworth(UK)wasengagedinthestructuralresearchofcarbohydratesandvitaminC.P.Carre(Switzerland)Researchoncarotenoids,riboflavin,vitaminAandvitaminB2.
In1938,R.Kuhn(Germany)wasengagedintheresearchofcarotenoidsandvitamins.
In1939,A.Boutenant(Germany)wasengagedintheresearchofsexhormones.
Mid-twentiethcentury
In1943,G.Heyves(Hungary)usedradioisotopetracingtechnologytostudychemicalandphysicalchanges.
In1944,O.Hahn(Germany)discoveredaheavynuclearfissionreaction.
In1945,A.I.Vertanan(Finland)studiedagriculturalchemistryandnutritionalchemistry,andinventedthemethodofstoringandmaintainingfeed.
In1946,J.B.Sumner(USA)separatedandpurifiedenzymesforthefirsttime.J.H.Northrop,W.M.Stanley(USA)Separationandpurificationofenzymesandviralproteins.
In1947,R.Robinson(UK)wasengagedintheresearchofalkaloids.
In1948,A.W.K.Tisselius(Sweden)discoveredelectrophoresistechnologyandadsorptionchromatography.
In1949,W.F.Geok(U.S.)hasbeenengagedintheresearchofchemicalthermodynamicsforalongtime,andthesubjectisthestudyofphysicalreactionsunderover-temperatureconditions.
In1950,O.P.H.DielsandK.Alder(Germany)discoveredtheDiels-Alderreactionanditsapplication.
In1951,G.T.SeabergandE.M.Macmillan(UnitedStates)discoveredtransuranicelements.
In1952,A.J.P.MartinandR.L.M.Singh(UK)developedandappliedpartitionchromatography.
In1953,H.Staudinger(Germany)wasengagedintheresearchofcyclicpolymercompounds.
In1954,L.C.Pauling(USA)clarifiedthenatureofchemicalbondingandexplainedthecomplexmolecularstructure.
In1955,V.Wignold(UnitedStates)identifiedandsynthesizedsulfur-containingbiologicalsubstances(especiallyoxytocinandpressurehormone).
In1956,C.N.Hinshelwood(UK)andN.N.Semenov(Russia)proposedthechemicalkinetictheoryofgasphasereactions(especiallybranchedchainreactions).
In1957,A.R.Todd(UK)wasengagedintheresearchofnucleasesandnucleicacidcoenzymes.
In1958,F.Sanger(UK)wasengagedintheresearchofinsulinstructure.
In1959,J.Heilovsky(CzechRepublic)proposedthetheoryofpolarographyandinventedthemethodofpolarographyinelectrochemicalanalysis.
In1960,W.F.Libby(U.S.)inventedthe"radiocarbondatingmethod."
In1961,M.Calvin(USA)suggestedthemechanismofplantphotosynthesis.
In1962,M.F.PerutzandJ.C.Kendrew(UK)determinedthefinestructureofproteins.
In1963,K.Ziegler(Germany)andG.Natta(Italy)discoveredamethodofpolymerizationusinganewtypeofcatalystandengagedinbasicresearchinthisarea.
In1964,D.M.C.Hawking(UK)usedX-raydiffractiontechnologytodeterminethespatialstructureofcomplexcrystalsandmacromolecules.
In1965,R.B.Woodward(USA)forhiscontributiontoorganicsynthesis.
In1966,R.S.Mullikon(USA)usedquantummechanicstoestablishthemolecularorbitaltheoryofchemicalstructure,elucidatingthenatureofcovalentbondsandelectronicstructureofmolecules.
In1967,theR.G.W.NorrisClub,G.Porter(UK),andM.Eggen(Germany)inventedthetechnologytomeasurerapidchemicalreactions.
In1968,L.Onsag(USA)engagedinbasicresearchonthermodynamicsofirreversibleprocesses.
In1969,O.Hassel(Norway)andK.H.R.Patton(UK)contributedtothedevelopmentofstereochemistrytheory.
In1970,L.F.Leloire(Argentina)discoveredsugarnucleotidesandtheirroleinsugarsynthesis.
In1971,G.Herzberg(Canada)wasengagedintheresearchoftheelectronicstructureandgeometricstructureoffreeradicals.
In1972,C.B.Anfinson(USA)determinedtheresearchontheactiveareaofribonucleotide.
In1973,E.O.Fischer(Germany)andG.Wilkinson(UK)wereengagedintheresearchoforganometalliccompoundswithmultilayerstructure.
In1974,P.J.Flory(USA)wasengagedinbasicresearchonthetheoryandexperimentofpolymerchemistry.
In1975,J.W.Conforth(Australia)studiedthestereochemistryofenzyme-catalyzedreactions.V.Prelog(Switzerland)isengagedintheresearchoforganicmoleculesandthestereochemistryoforganicmolecules.
In1976,WNLipscombe(USA)wasengagedinstructuralresearchofborane
In1977,I.Prigogine(Belgium)mainlystudiednon-equilibriumthermodynamicsandproposedThetheoryof"dissipativestructure".
In1978,P.D.Mitchell(UK)wasengagedintheresearchofenergyconversiononbiofilms.
In1979,H.C.Brown(USA)andG.Wittig(Germany)developedaneworganicsynthesismethod.
Attheendofthe20thcentury
In1980,P.Berg(USA)wasengagedinthebiochemistryofnucleicacids.W.Gilbert(USA)andF.Sanger(UK)determinedthesequenceofnucleotidebases.
In1981,KenichiFukui(Japan)andR.Hoffman(UK)developedtheprincipleofconservationofmolecularorbitsymmetryandthefrontierorbitaltheoryusingquantummechanics.
In1982,A.Kluge(UK)developedtheelectrondiffractionmethodofcrystallography,andengagedinthestudyofthethree-dimensionalstructureofnucleicacid-proteincomplexes.
In1983,H.Taub(USA)clarifiedtheelectronicreactionmechanismofmetalcoordinationcompounds.
In1984,R.B.Merrifield(USA)developedaverysimplepeptidesynthesismethod.
In1985,J.CarlandH.A.Hauptman(USA)developedadirectcalculationmethodfordeterminingthecrystalstructureofmatterbyX-raydiffraction.
In1986,D.R.Hirschbach,LiYuanzhe(Taiwan,China),andJ.C.Polyani(Canada)studiedthedynamicsofchemicalreactionsystemsinthemovementprocessofthepotentialenergysurface.
In1987,C.J.Pedersen,D.J.Cramm(USA),J.M.Lane(France)synthesizedcrownethercompounds.
In1988,J.Dysenhofer,R.Huber,H.Michel(Germany)analyzedthethree-dimensionalstructureofthephotosynthesisreactioncenter.
In1989,S.Altman,T.R.Cech(USA)discoveredthatRNAitselfhasthecatalyticfunctionofanenzyme.
In1990,E.J.Corey(UnitedStates)createdauniquetheoryoforganicsynthesis—reversesynthesisanalysistheory.
In1991,R.R.Ernst(Switzerland)inventedFouriertransformnuclearmagneticresonancespectroscopyandtwo-dimensionalnuclearmagneticresonancetechnology.
In1992,R.A.Marcus(USA)contributedtothetheoryofelectrontransferreactionsinsolution.
In1993,K.B.Mullis(USA)inventedthe"polymerasechainreaction"method,andM.Smith(Canada)pioneeredthe"oligonucleotide-basedsite-directedmutagenesis"method.
In1994,G.A.Euler(UnitedStates)madeoutstandingcontributionsinthefieldofhydrocarbons,namelyhydrocarbons.
In1995,P.Kruzen(Germany),M.Molina,andF.S.Roland(USA)explainedthechemicalmechanismthataffectstheozonelayerandprovedthatman-madechemicalshaveadestructiveeffectontheozonelayer.
In1996,RFCole(U.S.),HWCrotoin(U.K.),RESmalley(U.S.)discoveredanewformofcarbon-Fuller'ssphere(alsoknownasBuckyBall)C60.
In1997,P.B.Boyer(USA),J.E.Walker(UK),J.C.Sko(Denmark)discoverediontransportenzymesresponsibleforstoringandtransferringenergyinhumancells.
In1998,W.Cohen(Austria)andJ.Pope(UK)proposeddensityfunctionaltheory.
In1999,AhmedXavier(Egypt,American)appliedfemtosecondspectroscopytothestudyofthetransitionstateofchemicalreactions.
Thebeginningofthe21stcentury
In2000,Haig(UnitedStates),McDilmid(UnitedStates),andShirakawaHideki(Japan)discoveredthatplasticsthatcanconductelectricitywereeffective.
In2001,WilliamKnowles(USA)andRyojiNoi(Japan)madeachievementsinthefieldof"chiralcatalytichydrogenation".BarrySharpless(China)hasmadeachievementsinthefieldof"chiralcatalytichydrogenation".
In2002,JohnB.Finn(USA)andKoichiTanaka(Japan)developedasoftdesorptionionizationmethodinthelarge-scalemassspectrometryanalysisofbiopolymers.Kurt-Utrich(Switzerland)usednuclearelectromagneticresonancespectroscopytodeterminethethree-dimensionalstructureofsolventbiopolymers.
In2003,Agri(UnitedStates)andMcNong(UnitedStates)studiedthestructureofcellmembranewaterchannelsandtheirworkingmechanisms.
In2004,AaronChehanovo(Israel),AvramHershko(Israel),OwenRoss(U.S.)discoveredubiquitin-regulatedproteindegradation-aTheimportantmechanismofprotein"death".
In2005YvesChauvin(France),RobertGrubb(UnitedStates),RichardSchrock(UnitedStates)studiedthemetathesisofolefinsinorganicchemistry.
2006RogerKornberg(USA)"Molecularbasisofeukaryotictranscription".
2007GerhardEitel(Germany)Researchonsolidsurfacechemistry.
2008ShimomuraOsamu(Japanese-American),MartinChalfie(American),QianYongjian(Chinese-American)GFP(GreenFluorescentProtein)discoveryandfurtherresearch.
2009Wankatraman-LimaKrishnan(BritishAmerican),ThomasSteitz(UnitedStates),AdaYunas(Israel)"Thestructureandfunctionoftheribosome"Research.
2010CharlesHeck(USA),Negishi(Japan),SuzukiAkira(Japan)palladium-catalyzedcross-couplingreaction.
In2011,DanielShechtman(Israel)discoveredthequasi-crystalmaterial.
2012RobertLefkowitz(U.S.)andBrianKabilka(U.S.)"G-proteincoupledreceptorresearch".
In2013,MartinCapras,MichaelLevitt,andArielVachel"createdamulti-scalemodelforcomplexchemicalsystems."
Developmentprospects
1.Ensurethesurvivalofhumanbeingsandcontinuouslyimprovethequalityofhumanlife.Suchas:theuseofchemistrytoproducefertilizersandpesticidestoincreasefoodproduction;theuseofchemicallysynthesizeddrugstoinhibitbacteriaandvirusesandprotecthumanhealth;theuseofchemistrytodevelopnewenergyandnewmaterialstoimprovehumanlivingconditions;theuseofchemistrytocomprehensivelyapplynatureResourcesandprotectionoftheenvironmenttomakehumanlifebetter.
2.Chemistryisaverypracticalnaturalsubject.Togetherwithsuchsubjectsasmathematicsandphysics,ithasbecomethebasisfortherapiddevelopmentofnaturalsciences.Thecoreknowledgeofchemistryhasbeenappliedtovariousareasofnaturalscience,andchemistryisanimportantpillarofthepowerfulforcethattransformsnature.Differentfromthesmallerparticlephysicsandnuclearphysics,theatoms,molecules,ions(clusters),andchemicalbondsstudiedbychemistsareonthescaleclosesttothemacroscopicinthemicroscopicworld.Therefore,chemistrycanbeusedtopreparehumanneeds.Substancesandmaterialswithspecificphysicalandchemicalpropertiesthatdonotexistinnature.Chemistsusechemicalviewpointstoobserveandthinkaboutsocialissues,andusechemicalknowledgetoanalyzeandsolvesocialissues,suchasenergyissues,foodissues,environmentalissues,healthissues,resourcesandsustainabledevelopment.
3.Theintersectionandpenetrationofchemistryandotherdisciplineshasproducedmanymarginaldisciplines,suchasbiochemistry,geochemistry,cosmology,oceanchemistry,atmosphericchemistry,etc.,makingbiology,electronics,aerospace,laser,Geology,oceanandotherscienceandtechnologydevelopedrapidly.
4.Cultivatethementalityofcontinuousprogress,discovery,exploration,andcuriosity,inspirehumandesiretounderstandandunderstandnature,andenrichpeople'sspiritualworld.
Nowadays,chemistryhasincreasinglypenetratedintoallaspectsoflife,especiallymajorissuescloselyrelatedtothedevelopmentofhumansociety.Inshort,chemistryiscloselyrelatedtohumanclothing,food,housing,transportation,energy,information,materials,nationaldefense,environmentalprotection,electronics,metallurgy,medicineandhealth,andresourceutilization.Itisanurgentneedforsociety.Practicalsubjects.
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